Thursday, November 28, 2019
ACT English Practice Questions
ACT English Practice Questions ACT English Practice Questions The actual ACT English section of the ACT exam will have five different reading passages with 75 questions total. Here, try your hand at just one of the reading passages to see how you might fare on this multiple-choice portion of the test. Be sure to use those ACT English strategies! The set-up below is a little different than what youll see on the actual exam. Here, the questions are indicated by a number in front of the bold text youll need to address. On the exam, the numbers will be underneath the underlined portion youll need to address. Additionally, the text will be on the right with the questions on the left on the actual test. Scroll down for answers below the questions More Than Light Itself               On hot and humid summer evenings, almost everyone has witnessed fireflies, also called lightning bugs, flitting around (2) your yard or landing on a windowsill and occasionally emitting a soft glow. Flashing on and off like flashlights or twinkling holiday lights, a firefly is just one of the many organisms that can produce (3) its own (4) light. This feature, known as bioluminescence or cold light, (5) appears in nature quite often.            All forms of light occur through a similar process. To understand this process, you must first know a little bit about atoms. Atoms are the (6) smaller parts of elements, such as iron and sodium, (7) which have the same chemical properties. The center of an atom is called the nucleus and is composed of particles called protons and neutrons. Other particles, called electrons, orbit the nucleus of an (8) atom; just like the earth orbits the sun. The electrons orbit does not change unless the electrons are excited or energized in some way. QUESTION 9 Then, when they fall back to their normal energy level, they fall back to a lower orbit and release packets of energy called photons, (10) which produce light. Light from a lamp or streetlight is produced when electrons are excited by heat from electricity.            In bioluminescent organisms, electrons are excited by a chemical reaction, not heat, which is why the phenomenon is often referred to as cold light. The chemicals that various organisms use to create light are luciferin and luciferase. Luciferin is the substance that produces (11) light luciferase is the enzyme that causes the chemical reaction to begin. In the simplest terms, luciferase makes luciferin react with oxygen, which produces light.            QUESTION 12 1 Many organisms, (13) from bacteria and mushrooms to certain sea creatures, insects, and others are capable of producing their own light. 2 Certain fungi, such as the jack-o-lantern mushroom, can also create light. 3 The orange jack-o-lantern mushrooms are often found growing on trees in the fall. 4 Among the terrestrial creatures are fireflies, glowworms, and some centipedes and millipedes. 5 Fox fire is another type of glowing fungus, usually found growing on dead or decaying trees. 6 At night, the gills of the mushroom, found beneath the cap and partway down the stalk, emit a greenish light. ACT English Practice Questions 1. The writer is considering deleting On hot and humid summer evenings from the first sentence (adjusting the capitalization as needed). If the writer were to make this change, the paragraph would primarily lose: A. an indication of the tone that will be used in the rest of the passage. B. details that emphasize the time of year bioluminescence must occur. C. an example of the kinds of weather imperative for bioluminescence to occur. D. nothing, because it is irrelevant to the paragraph. 2. F. NO CHANGE G. their yard or landing on a windowsill H. his or her yard or landing on a windowsill J. your yard or landing on a windowsill 3. A. NO CHANGE B. its C. its D. their 4. Which of the following is NOT an acceptable alternative for the bold portion? F. light, this feature G. light; this feature H. light, and this feature J. light. This dramatic feature 5.The writer would like to indicate here the surprising frequency of bioluminescence. Which choice does this most effectively while maintaining the tone of the passage and the meaning of the sentence? A. actually appears in nature at a higher frequency than one might come to expect. B. actualy appears in nature more often than you might think. C. actually appears in nature more often than it does not. D. actually shows up in nature more than you could ever even believe. 6. F. NO CHANGE G. most small H. smallest J. more small 7. A. NO CHANGE B. despite having the same chemical properties as the elements. C. that has the same chemical properties as the elements that contain them. D. and have the same chemical properties as the elements that contain them. 8. F. NO CHANGE G. atom just like H. atom, just like J. atom: just like 9. Given that all the following choices are true, which choice provides the most effective transition from the preceding sentence in the paragraph to the following one? A. When electrons absorb energy, they move to a higher orbit. B. When electrons take in energy, they resume their normal energy level and move to the highest orbit. C. After they are energized, they move into a lower orbit. D. After they are energized, they resume their normal energy level. 10. Which of the following is NOT an acceptable alternative to the bold portion? F. which produce light; light from G. which produce light. Light such as that from H. that produce light. Light from J. that produce light from 11. A. NO CHANGE B. light. Luciferase C. light, but luciferase D. light; and luciferase 12.Which of the following sentence orders makes the paragraph the most logical? F. NO CHANGE G. 1, 4, 6, 5, 2, 3 H. 1, 4, 2, 6, 5, 3 J. 1, 4, 2, 3, 6, 5 13. A. NO CHANGE B. from bacteria and mushrooms to certain sea creatures, insects, and others is C. from bacteria and mushrooms to certain sea creatures and insects are D. from bacteria, mushrooms, and certain sea creatures are Questions 14 and 15 relate to the passage as a whole 14. The writer is considering adding a statement to the beginning of the passage, clarifying the purpose for writing. Which statement LEAST emphasizes the writers purpose? F. Reading this passage will inform you of instances of bioluminescence in nature and the science behind this phenomenon. G. Although the primary cause of bioluminescence is unclear, after reading this passage, youll know a little more about the science surrounding this magical feature of nature, a few examples of it in the wild, and the chemical reactions that cause it to occur. H. After you finish reading this passage, youll be able to explain scientific data about bioluminescence and provide a few examples of this wonder in the natural world around us. J. When youve finished reading this information about bioluminescence, youll be persuaded to study the complexities of the science behind this phenomenon, and the different forms of nature preserving themselves with a bioluminescent feature. 15. The writer would like to add a paragraph to the end of the passage challenging readers to donate money to fund research on bioluminescence in habitats around the world. Should this paragraph be added? A. Yes, because the passage is left without a conclusion, and adding a challenge to the end of this piece is a great way to create a conclusion without repeating too much information. B. Yes, because it would tie the whole point of the passage together while offering a way for readers to connect to the scientific data presented. C. No, because although the passage is left without an appropriate conclusion, adding a paragraph about donating money changes the purpose of the essay. D. No, because the paragraph that is currently at the end sums up the passage enough for the reader to be left with information about bioluminescence that he or she didnt know prior to reading. Answers Question 1 A            Although this phrase mentions weather, the rest of the essay never indicates that bioluminescence has anything to do with the weather, which gets rid of choices B and C. D is obviously incorrect. If you completed this question second, answering all of the easy questions first and coming back to this later, youd know that! Question 2 H            Here, the antecedent is everyone, which is singular. It requires the singular his or her, although we can all agree that youd probably use the word their in spoken English. Question 3 B            Here, we need the possessive pronoun for firefly, so its is appropriate. Its is a contraction of it is. Its is not a word, and their, Choice D, changes the pronoun to plural when it must be singular. Question 4 F             This one is tricky, because you have to figure out which one is NOT acceptable. Choice F creates a comma splice sentence, but every other choice is structurally sound. Question 5 B            Choice A is too formal, choice C is inaccurate, and Choice D is too informal. Choice B maintains the casual tone the best. Question 6 H            Here, the superlative form shouldve been used, which would make it smallest, which rules out choice F. Choices G and J are never appropriate. Question 7 D            This is a matter of an ambiguous pronoun reference. Were not sure if the pronoun which is referring back to atoms or the elements. Choice A is incorrect because it doesnt fix the ambiguity. Choice B creates a different meaning and doesnt fix the ambiguity. Choice C actually creates a new error by using the singular pronoun has. Question 8 H            Remember that a semicolon must follow the same rules as an end mark by joining independent clauses. Here, the second clause is not independent, so a better usage is a comma and the conjunction. Question 9 A            This sentence must join the previous and following sentences together. Since the following sentence mentions the lower orbit in the comparative sense, we have to assume that higher is what its being compared to. Question 10 J             This is one of those NOT questions, which means you simply have to cross of the stuff that does work. Here, youre looking to form a correct sentence, so check each one by plugging in. Choice J changes the meaning of the sentences altogether, so it doesnt work. Question 11 B            In the passage, the sentence is a run-on. So, choice A is out. Choice C creates faulty meaning, and Choice D uses the semicolon improperly. Question 12 J             The easiest way to figure this out is by underlining the topic of each sentence, and paying close attention to transitions. That way, youll logically figure out which should come next. Question 13 C            Choice B creates another error: subject verb agreement. Choice D leaves out some information (insects), so it has to go. Choice A is wrong because the sentence isnt parallel in context. Question 14 J             Here, youll greatly benefit from having read the entire passage. If you skimmed, youll miss out on what the author was clearly trying to do, which is to inform you about something. Since choice J says the author was trying to persuade you, it is wrong. Question 15 C            Although choices A and B indicate that the essay is missing a conclusion and it is, the reason for adding it is incorrect. That kind of a conclusion would neither tie anything together, nor would it keep the tone of the piece. Choice C indicates this.
Monday, November 25, 2019
Essay on Reflective Summary
Essay on Reflective Summary Essay on Reflective Summary Essay on Reflective SummaryIdentity theft can happen if someone steals your personal information and uses it to get bank loans, making purchases or opening new accounts for credit cards. So, taking into account the fact that ID theft is a serious concern due to the proliferation of technology, it is necessary to discuss the problem from various perspectives.To begin, it is necessary to mention that according to Hayward (2004), identity theft is a fraud that is seen in getting personal or financial data of users to use a person’s name or identification for financial transactions or purchases. Perpetrators receive unauthorized access to corporate databases to steal a list of customers and their data for the purpose to steal private information. Sovern (2004) stated that using the necessary information, scammers have the ability to destroy a person’s credit rating or get access to other personal data. In the U.S., identity theft is associated with widespread SSN (Social Se curity Number) as identification. In order to obtain proof of identity, a large number of organizations are requesting SSN. In the UK, for the implementation of identity theft, perpetrators use NINO (National Insurance number) and NHS (National Health Service Number). In such a way, if the perpetrator finds personal information, such as name, address, date of birth, social security number (SSN), driver’s license and the mother’s maiden name, he will be able to impersonate any personality. As a result, according to Schreft (2007), a thief of identity will be able to dispose a person’s bank accounts, to open new bank accounts, to transfer money from accounts, to apply for granting loans and credit cards, as well as to buy expensive things.There exists the Identity Theft Resource Center, where people can ask for help because the center is a non-profit organization that was created to provide all the consumers with free suggestions about what people can do in a case of identity theft. The main goals of the center are to help people to cope with their problems in the area of identity theft as well as to educate and inform consumers about the ways how they can avoid many problems with their bank accounts. One of the services that is offered for victims by the Identity Theft Resource Center is a support of the person by a well-qualified specialist of a call center. This service helps people to ask for advice timely and to react on the identity theft in a proper and adequate way.In conclusion, we have explored identity theft from various perspectives, and it is necessary to add that the fact of identity theft will continue to be a serious problem in future. Nowadays the development of computer technologies forces people to actively use their personal data in daily life, so, perpetrators are also creating new methods to steal a person’s identity.
Thursday, November 21, 2019
CAsE fOr AnALYsis Does This Milkshake Taste funny Article
CAsE fOr AnALYsis Does This Milkshake Taste funny - Article Example Time played the major role in justifying the removal of the filters. In the case study, the time for the production was elapsing and George and his team had not finished their daily duties. The reason for their failure to complete their duty on time was the filters that clogged with maggots. This made the team to remove the filter so that they can speed up production in order to beat the time deadline for their daily production. Therefore, time was the major cause of the unethical practice of producing milk contaminated with maggots. Running the production process without filters in this plant speeds up the production process. As a result, the plant could produce more products in the allocated time. This is one of the reasons why a choice to run the product without filters would be made. The other reason is the absence of the management. Management would have been worried more about quality than time thus hindering such a decision. One of the dynamics contributing to this choice is that the products go through a homogenizer, which can remove all the solid matter after production in the plant. The other dynamic is that the product would be going through pasteurization process. This process would kill any bacteria that might be in the product. Producing contaminated products for consumers is very unethical. If I were George, I would not agree to remove all the filters in the production plant. Instead, I would clean the filters and put them back to the plant. As a result, the product would be free of maggots. However, as the production team, we would not be able to produce the required daily capacity. Moreover, my relationship with colleagues especially Paul would be greatly affected. Occurrence of choices made in the case study was caused by time limitation. To avoid occurrence of such choices, the management should stop focusing on quantity and time and start focusing on
Wednesday, November 20, 2019
Journal Article Research and Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Journal Article Research and Analysis - Essay Example Heneman (2002), states that for human resources compensation is the prime source that enables companies to attract and retain talents, thus the compensation management is a critical component of human resource management and of the entire organization. The importance of compensable factors, such as knowledge required by position and skills requirements, problem solving and accountability (Jones, Steffy & Bray, 1991) are dictated by the complex decisions that executives should make in order to positively impact company’s recruitment and retention efforts and to reach organizational goals. Therefore, choosing a compensation strategy is one of the main human resource decisions made by any organization. The development of such strategy is highly important because it promotes employee recruitment, retention, motivation and good performance thanks to the set of offerings that a company makes. However, not every organization compensates its employees or uses compensation strategically. While wages and benefits policies are used without strategical intentions, compensations instead are aimed to improve morale, reduce employees’ turnover and help achieve targets within an establishment (Das & Baruah, 2013). However, as stated by Hong, Hao, Kumar, Ramendran and Kadiresan (2012), compensation is not one of the main factors that impact the employees’ turnover despite being a critical factor in reducing managerial turnover. When determining the compensable factors, the developers should consider such policy choices as internal alignment, external competitiveness, employee contributions and the management of the pay system. As internal alignment deals with the pay relationships within the organization, it dictates the level of skills and knowledge that are needed, thus the compensation and benefits programs are granted for the special set of such skills. As companies are facing severe competitiveness, they should offer applicants such compensation packages that
Monday, November 18, 2019
Public law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 3
Public law - Essay Example He is also a controversial figure, often the subject of scrutiny when it comes to human rights issues. He is fervent on the pursuit of human rights as they apply to the laws under the European Convention of 1950. As a high court Judge, his statement regarding the correct terminology to indicate the relationship between the judicial branch of government and other branches of government are certainly subjective. This is so as he possibly views an aspect of government and legislature than many others do not have the opportunity to see first hand. Also, naturally he is in a position to defend his own actions as they pertain to the laws. We will take a closer look at some of the terms and conditions of the Human Rights Act of 1998. The Human Rights Act has been established in order to preserve and protect the basic and legal rights of citizens. This Act is an act of Parliament of the UK. It was officially active as of October 2, of 2000. It is essentially an expansion of the European Convention on Human Rights. It has been established to provide this expansion of the Convention within the UK. It is intended to protect the greater community from corruption or mistreatment by the public bodies that hold power within local and overall government. Furthermore, it is a sort of safety net for the UK higher courts so that problems that arise which are in fact a violation of human rights can be handled within UK courts as apposed to going straight to the European Court of Human Rights. This court is located in Strasbourg. The Human Rights Act is pertinent to all Public bodies, judicial or otherwise with in the United Kingdom. Parliament, when it is acting in legislative capacity, is the only condition to this otherwise all encompassing policy. This act has been placed in order to allow for the enforcement of one’s rights under the European Human Rights Convention. It allows
Friday, November 15, 2019
Analysing The Effectiveness Of The Kyoto Protocol Politics Essay
Analysing The Effectiveness Of The Kyoto Protocol Politics Essay Environmental issues become global issues because the effect of the environmental problem goes beyond national boundaries. Thus, environmental issues are common concerns and every country has a responsibility to tackle the problem. One of the environmental problems is global warming. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted in 1992 in order to mitigate the impact of greenhouse gas that can endanger human life. Principally, the Convention attempted to reduce the emissions that can trigger the gradual warming of the atmosphere. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in the Third Conference of the Parties as a legally binding treaty. In the Kyoto Protocol, the ratified countries have to commit to a target to reduce their emissions. By countries to reducing emissions in concert, it is expected that the issue of climate change and its impact on the earth can be addressed. After more than a decade, the effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol as a global environmental regime to address climate change is still questioned. This essay argues that the Kyoto Protocol is not effective enough to tackle global warming. The argument will be based on the examination of two issues in the Kyoto Protocol. Firstly, the issue of participation will be discussed, especially the principle of common but differentiated responsibility (CDR). Secondly, the issue of participation will be linked to the compliance issue in the Kyoto Protocol. In this section, this essay will look at the effectiveness of three mechanisms in the Kyoto Protocol: emission trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). The Kyoto Protocol Environmental damage caused by pollution does not recognize national boundaries and has to be addressed by combined action of multiple states. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported the scientific findings about the actual threat to the earth were caused by the increase of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG). GHG will cover the atmosphere and eventually block solar radiation. This will cause an increase of the earths temperature and result in climate change, such as unpredictable and extreme weather, floods, and storms. The scientific findings recommend to maintain the increase of temperature below 20C by limiting the concentration of CO2 on the atmosphere below 550 ppm (Baylis et al. 2008: 361). Notwithstanding keeping the increase of temperature below 20C, scientists believe that the climate change would still bring mostly negative effects to human life (Scott 2004: 271). These scientific findings force all nations to cooperate to mitigate climate change. The UNFCCC was established at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 as an international action to address climate change. The UNFCCC was non-binding agreement to encourage state parties to cut their gas emission. Then, the Third Conference of the Parties on December 11, 1997, successfully negotiated the Kyoto Protocol as the first binding international agreement to mitigate global warming by targeting emission reduction of states (Scott 2004: 273). The Kyoto Protocol was signed by most states, but the process of ratification was not easy. Article 24(1) of the Kyoto Protocol stated that the Protocol was opened for signature from 16 March 1998 to 15 March 1999. According to Article 25(1) of the Kyoto Protocol, the Protocol shall enter into force on the ninetieth day after the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex I which accounted in total for at least 55 per cent of the total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the Parties included in Annex I, have deposited their instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession. (Scott 2006: 637-638) The United States represents 36.1 per cent of Annex I emissions, Russia represents 17.4 per cent, and Japan, Australia, Canada and the rest of Annex I countries represent below 10 per cent. With that composition, the United States and the Russian Federation ratification became significant for the Kyoto Protocol to be enforced. Although the United States signed the Protocol it is opposed to bringing the Kyoto Protocol to the Senate for ratification. Consequently, the ratification of the Russian Federation became crucial to fulfil at least 55 per cent of the total emission of Annex I countries as stated in the article 25(1) (Doelle 2005: xv). The Russian Federation did ratify the Protocol and it was enforced on February 16, 2005. According to UNFCCC, there are 191 parties in the Kyoto Protocol and the total percentage of Annex I parties emissions is 63.7 per cent (UNFCCC). Participation The climate change issue is not only about emission reduction. The issue involves many other aspects, such as transportation, agriculture, and energy security. Thus, addressing climate change will eventually point to the structural inequalities in wealth, income and power between the North and the South (Gupta in Hisschemà ¶ller and Gupta 1999: 154). Encouraging participation from all developed and developing countries is one difficulty in creating an effective climate change regime. The basis for implementing the principle of common but differentiated responsibility (CDR) is to encourage the cooperation of all states to promote effective action on global issue, such as climate change (Cullet 2003: 16). However, the application of the CDR principle has its own obstacles. As stated above, the reluctance of the United States to ratify the Kyoto Protocol refers to the minimum role of developing countries to the reduction of GHG emissions, particularly regarding the principle of CDR. Developing countries recognize two principles in environmental law: the common heritage of mankind (CHM) and the common but differentiated responsibility (CDR) between nations. CHM is the first principle used by developing countries to assert justice on resource exploitation. However, the CHM principle is less significant (Duff in Okereke 2008: 8) than the CDR principle in negotiating environmental law. Thus, this essay only discusses the CDR principle in the climate change regime. Common is to recognize that all states have the same environmental risks to face, but the responsibility to address the problems is differentiated among countries, particularly between developed and developing countries (Stone 2004: 277). According to Okereke, from the perspective of international law, the CDR principle has culpability and capability dimensions. The first dimension refers to history and emphasizes that most of the current environmental problems were caused by the development of the North, particularly in the era of industrialization. That dimension is closely related to the dimension of capability. Because of that development, developed countries are now more capable than developing countries, in term of technology and financial resources (Okereke 2008: 32). Thus, article 4 of the UNFCCC adopts the CDR principle to acknowledge that developed countries have more responsibilities and should take the lead in dealing with climate change. Making the environmental issue a global priority would distract developing countries from their development which could make them reluctant to join the Kyoto Protocol. The CDR principle resolves this issue because it bridges the notions of environmental protection and the need of development by the South, or developing countries (Najam 2005: 308). Therefore, the CDR principle has two implications in the Kyoto Protocol. Firstly, the Annex I countries in the Kyoto Protocol have commitments in reducing emissions while the developing countries are excused from the effort to reduce their emissions. Secondly, the developed countries are expected to provide technological and financial assistance to developing countries in order to meet the recommended amount of emission reduction and also to reduce the possible social and economic impacts on developing countries when they are fulfilling their voluntary commitment (Cullet 2003: 70-71). The implications of the CDR principle are demonstrated b y the provision of financial and technological assistance under the Kyoto Protocol. The application of the CDR principle into policy instruments of the Kyoto Protocol is challenging. The United States as the largest emitter in the world rejects those two implications of the CDR principle as stated above. This opposition is based on the view that although developed countries are the largest producers of GHG, new emerging economies, such as China, India, and Brazil, that also produce large amount of GHG emissions, should not be ignored. China, which is included in the grouping of developing countries, is the second largest which produce of GHG emissions (Harris 1999: 31). Therefore, the United States is of the view that the large developing countries should give the similar contributions as the Annex I countries to prevent the high increases of GHS emissions in the next decades (Scholtz 2008: 127). The unwillingness of the United States as the largest producer of GHG emissions, to ratify the Kyoto Protocol results in the Protocols lack of legitimacy. This is worsened by the reluctance of the developing countries to reduce their emissions before the developed countries show progress (Harris 1999: 33-34). Thus, the Kyoto Protocol will only be effective if all parties are willing to participate. This means the United States must agree to have a binding commitment for reducing its emissions and the developing countries should agree to have a voluntarily commitment to cut their increasing emissions (Scholtz 2008: 128). According to Downs, determinants for the regimes legitimacy are democratic decision-making, high consensus standard, and the degree of distributive fairness embodied in standards (Downs 2000: 27). The debate between developed and developing countries over the CDR principle shows that the climate change regime lacks consensus. In this case, it shows that developing cou ntries are distrustful of the Kyoto Protocol by believing that it is only aimed for the developed countries benefit (Downs 2000: 27). The lack of consensus will influence the issue of participation and compliance and at the end, the Kyoto Protocol will become ineffective as a binding treaty to solve global environmental problems. Compliance The issue of participation is closely related to the issue of compliance and both will influence the effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol. When the highest sovereignty is the state, it is difficult to enforce international law. Scott argues that the lack of an international police force to enforce compliance makes international law is only politically effective (Scott 2004: 7). If the compliance mechanism in international law is effective, then on the one hand many countries will be willing to participate in the treaty. On the other hand, they would rather not participate in the treaty than breach their obligations (Vezirgiannidou 2009: 42). Becoming a non-compliant state will risk its image in the international community. In environmental law, particularly under the climate change regime, this essay would argue that lack of capacity and the idea of a free rider are the reasons for the issue of non-compliance in the Kyoto Protocol. Firstly, one possibility is that the states, mostly developing countries, intend to comply with the treaty, but they do not have enough resources and the capacity to fulfil the requirements. In this case of non-compliance, assistance would be needed rather than penalty to increase their compliance with the treaty (Young in Vezirgiannidou 2009: 43). Another possibility is that the states would prefer to spend their resources for other priorities, such as their basic needs, than for climate mitigation (Doelle 2005: 116). Thus, the principle of assistance is to support the fulfilment of basic needs and to open the chance for countries to get involved with international commitment to address climate change. Secondly, the free rider in climate change is also considered as a form of non-compliance. Free riding is when states are able to enjoy the benefits without contributing to the cost. Grundig et al. describe that in the climate context, a state could free ride by not reducing its GHG emissions, while others do so. That state still could enjoy the benefit from the decreased danger of climate change achieved by others efforts (Grundig et al. in Vezirgiannidou 2009: 49). Neo-liberal theorists view the free riding problem as important in enforcing international law. In this case, non-participation in the treaty is also included as free riding. The issue of free riding can be solved with the strong mechanism of the compliance process, such as effective and transparent review and reporting mechanisms. Unfortunately, the current punishment mechanism in the Kyoto Protocol is not strong enough to make the state parties comply with their obligations. The issue of compliance provided in article 3(1) of the Kyoto Protocol is the Parties included in Annex I shall, individually or jointly, ensure that their aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of the greenhouse gases listed in Annex A do not exceed their assigned amounts, calculated pursuant to their quantified emission limitation and reduction commitments inscribed in Annex B and in accordance with the provisions of this Article, with a view to reducing their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012. (Scott 2006: 622) This article describes the obligation of Annex I countries to meet the emissions reduction. Countries could reduce emissions through several mechanisms, such as through national efforts or other mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol. According to UNFCCC, the mechanisms provided under the Kyoto Protocol are aimed to stimulate sustainable development through technology transfer and investment, help countries with Kyoto commitments to meet their targets by reducing emissions or removing carbon from the atmosphere in other countries in a cost-effective way, and encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to emission reduction efforts. (UNFCCC) The obligation of emissions reduction should be done through national measures. Emissions reduction is closely related to other policies, such as transportation, energy security, agriculture, economic activities, and also education and culture. There should be policy changes in those areas to assist reduction of climate change, but these should be applied carefully in order not to affect the economic growth and development of the states. The limitation in the use of fossil fuels energy has its own dilemmas. On the one hand, states should limit the use of fossil fuels to support the notion of environmental protection. On the other hand, the reduction in the consumption of fossil fuels will impact on supply and price. When developed countries limit themselves in their consumption of fossil fuels, the supply will increase and the price will decrease. This condition will trigger developing countries to consume fossil fuels. Here, environmental problems are not solved rather they are tran sferred from Annex I to non-Annex I countries (Baylis et al. 2008). Thus, this again reasserts the idea that environmental problems cannot be solved only by developed countries themselves without the participations of developing countries. To accelerate the progress in dealing with environmental problems and also to give flexibility to the state parties to fulfil their commitments, the Kyoto Protocol provides three mechanisms: emissions trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). The first mechanism, emission trading, allows one Annex I country to sell its amount of permitted GHG emissions to another Annex I country that has emissions below the target in the Kyoto Protocol. Although the overall amount of emissions can be reduced, the trading itself still cannot be ensured to be transparent, low-cost, and efficient (Cameron 2002: 12). The second mechanism is the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) that is provided under the article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol. CDM is aimed to assist parties not included in Annex I to reduce GHG emissions and attempt to achieve the objectives of the Kyoto Protocol. By assisting the project, including transferring technology, to non-Annex I countries, Annex I countries will gain GHG credits or Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs). The CERs will raise the assigned amount stated in article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol. The developing countries will also get the benefit from project assistance or the transfer of technology (Cameron 2002: 11). The last mechanism in the Kyoto Protocol is Joint Implementation (JI). The CDM and JI mechanisms have the same principles. JI mechanism allows developed countries to gain CERs by financing projects in another developed country or an Annex I party. This happens when the same amount of money could give a greater result in emissions reduction in other develop ed countries that have more efficient power plants or projects, rather than spending the money in own country (Baylis et al. 2008: 362). There are some critical questions on the implementation of the CDM. The CDM will surely need the participation from developing countries in the Kyoto Protocol to receive financial and technological assistance. Domestic politics in developing countries mostly place the agenda of climate change lower than other issues, such as economic development and health policies. Moreover, the effective implementation of the CDM depends on the recipient countries. Problems such as poverty and minimal health care, weak institutions, and the transparency of aid might influence the success of the project. Thus, assistance could be effective only within certain conditions. From a long-term perspective, this essay argues that the bigger problem is that the CDM might only relocate industries from developed countries to developing countries in order to avoid restrictions by the Annex I countries (Cameron 2002: 13-14). Therefore, those mechanisms might be attractive for all parties to participate and work hard to implement the Kyoto Protocol, but the environmental problems will not eventually be solved and the objective of climate change will not be achieved. Conclusion The Kyoto Protocol aims to address gradual warming and to protect the environment for the future generations. Climate change is a common problem and needs participation from all countries. This essay examines the effectiveness of the Kyoto Protocol from two elements: participation and compliance. The issue of participation is examined by discussing the principle of common but differentiated responsibility (CDR). The principle of CDR is meant to bridge the notions of environmental protection and development. By applying the principle of CDR in the Kyoto Protocol, the developing countries are willing to join in this climate change regime because this principle gives more attention to the developing countries. Firstly, the current environmental problems are related to the history of the era of industrialization which resulted in the developed countries. Secondly, the developing countries should be differentiated because they might not have the same capacity as developed countries, in te rms of finance and technology, to address the issue of climate change. However, in order to legitimize the Kyoto Protocol as a binding treaty, the new emerging economies, such as China, India, and Brazil, should be given more significant roles than other developing countries. This will also resolve the reluctance of the United States to ratify the Kyoto Protocol. The issue of participation in order to make the Kyoto Protocol more effective are closely related to the issue of compliance. A state will not join a treaty if it will breach the treaty. The non-compliance of states in environmental law is mostly because of the lack of capacity to fulfil the commitments and the issue of free riding. The issue of free riding could be solved by implementing a stronger compliance mechanism in the treaty. The Kyoto Protocol provides three mechanisms to help a state to comply with the obligations, through its own national measures. Those three mechanisms are emission trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). Although those mechanisms provide flexibility to fulfil the commitments among the Annex I countries or between developed and developing countries, the negative impacts for the long-term still need to be addressed in order to make the Kyoto Protocol an effective environmental treaty. (3219 words)
Wednesday, November 13, 2019
Mafia as Government Essay -- essays papers
Mafia as Government History and Introduction The history of the Mafia began in the ninth century, when a secret society was formed to protect the people of Sicily. Sicily was occupied by Arab forces. A group of Sicilians fled into the countryside to escape, and later to fight, the encroaching forces. This group became the Mafia The group’s original intentions were to create a sense of loyalty and respect for tradition, culture and family. The Mafia protected its' members interests and promoted protected individuals and businesses in exchange for loyalty and monetary tribute. As time passed, and the Mafia expanded to the Americas, the Mafia became more â€Å"criminal†, engaging in provision of illegal services and collection of taxes in defiance of the â€Å"legitimate†government. It is the purpose of this work to argue that the Mafia, a â€Å"criminal†organization, meets the criteria to be considered a government. The terms Mafia or mob used in this work should be considered to be synonymous and to refer to the American Mafia. The Mafia’s structure is similar in nature to a feudal government system, with agents reporting to regional governors, who in turn report to the organization’s leader. While the mob may or may not possess an overall head, individual regions of the mob may be thought of as a form of local government. The Mafia, as it is currently being discussed, exists within the confines of the United States, and thus may be in competition with, or at least overlapping the geographic areas of other government systems. Definitions of Government Ayn Rand has much to say on the â€Å"proper function†of government, but it is unclear as to what she considers a formal definitionon of what exactly categorizes an organization as a government. Her most specific response to the question appears in the opening sentence of â€Å"The Nature of Government†. The opinion is that the use of force and the enforcement of rules should be limited to government. (Rand) Randall Holcombe references Robert Dahl and Max Weber, summarizing their points of view that a monopoly on the use of force in a given area is the defining characteristic of government, thus adding a spatial characteristic to the definition. Holcombe further points out that obviously a monopoly on the use of coercive force is not required as can be seen from examples of ov... ...orms of government will â€Å"die out†over time, then the Mafia must be relatively efficient. Regardless, efficiency is quite obviously NOT a requirement to be considered a government. Conclusion Of course any number of normative arguments may be raised as to the relative â€Å"fairness†of Mafia governance. That it lacks some air of legitamacy or morality is not at issue. The Mafia lacks a constitution, thus enabling a wide range of government action. Rights are accorded to citizens at the whim of government agents, laws may unknown and erratically enforced, shifts within the leadership of government may be violent and have unstabilizing effects on the region. However, none of these points are at issue here. The argument here is not that the Mafia is the best government, or even a good government. It is simply that it meets an objective criteria to be considered as a government. Bibliography: Holcombe, Randall G., â€Å"The Distinction Between Clubs and Governments,†in The Economic Foundations of Government, New York: New York University Press, 1994 (Chapter 5) Rand, Ayn, â€Å"The Nature of Government,†The Virtue of Selfishness. New York: Signet Books, 1964, pp 107-115
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)